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Knowledge in Action: The Promise of Project-Based Learning

by Heide Spruck Wrigley
Imagine a group of = adult=20 basic education students sewing a quilt that displays the story of their = collective lives, or a GED class doing a research study that involves = calling=20 former students to find out if participating in the class has made a = difference.=20 Consider a group of learners starting their own cafe: negotiating space, = setting=20 budgets, getting supplies, and preparing food. Envision learners = investigating=20 the questions they have about U.S. immigration law by conducting = interviews,=20 writing about their personal experiences, talking with experts, using = the=20 library, and conducting research on the Internet. These are examples of = teachers=20 and students findings new ways of working together through a model of = teaching=20 called project-based learning.

In its simplest form, project-based learning involves a group of = learners=20 taking on an issue close to their hearts, developing a response, and = presenting=20 the results to a wider audience. Projects might last from only a few = days to=20 several months. In some cases, projects turn into businesses, such as = the=20 student-run cafe at ELISAIR, an English for speakers of other languages = (ESOL)=20 program in New York City.

What do we know about project-based learning, and why should it be = considered=20 a viable approach to adult literacy? In this article, I situate project = work=20 within a historical context that brings inquiry-learning, a Vygotskian=20 perspective, and progressive education into play. Although these = movements=20 occurred in a K-12 context, the language, literacy, and learning = concepts=20 pertain to adults new to reading and writing, as well. I link = project-based=20 learning to other approaches to teaching and learning, such as community = action=20 research, participatory education, and functional contexts. Finally, I = discuss=20 the benefits to be derived for adult learners, particularly in areas = related to=20 second language acquisition and preparation for the world of work.

Getting Started

The ideas for projects come from many places. Sometimes an event or = an issue=20 acts as a catalyst, as when a group of ESOL learners spontaneously = decide to=20 organize a fund raiser to help flood victims in Honduras and Nicaragua, = or a=20 group of Latina women in a family literacy program decide to start their = own=20 Spanish-speaking parent teacher association (PTA) so they can more = effectively=20 give voice to the issues that concern them. Other times, a teacher = gently=20 introduces the idea for a project, testing to see if a particular idea=20 resonates. No rules determine how a project is realized, although all = projects=20 seem to progress through some common phases: identification of a problem = or=20 issue; preliminary investigations; planning and assigning tasks; = researching the=20 topic; implementing the project, drafting and developing a final = product;=20 disseminating; and evaluating what worked.

History

Project-based learning has deep roots in education. It was first = discussed as=20 an educational approach to K-12 education in an article entitled "The = Project=20 Method" by Kilpatrick (1918), who believed that using literacy in = meaningful=20 contexts provided a means for building background knowledge and for = achieving=20 personal growth. Unlike those who later advocated models of = collaborative=20 learning, Kilpatrick was less interested in the group aspects of = learning than=20 in the cognitive development that resulted from project work. He = suggested that=20 projects be interdisciplinary math, science, social studies to provide = learners=20 with a rich array of concepts and ideas. He intended that topics come = from=20 students' interests, maintaining that group projects, proposed, planned, = executed, and evaluated by students, would help learners develop an=20 understanding of their lives while preparing to work within a democracy. = Although Kilpatrick imagined that projects should be driven by learner=20 questions, in practice, many teachers assign topics (Schubert 1986), a = practice=20 that runs counter to the spirit of student-generated projects that he = had in=20 mind. Project methods were used by advocates of a larger progressive = movement in=20 education that stressed the need for child-centered education. John = Dewey=20 (Dewey, 1899), who thought that schools should reflect society, was a = leader of=20 this movement, which flourished from the late 19th to the mid 20th = century.=20 Progressivists believed that children learn best through experiences in = which=20 they have an interest, and through activities that allow for individual=20 differences. Teachers were advised to observe learners and their = interests so=20 they could tie what students wanted to know to what the classroom = provided.=20 Practical inquiry- everyday problem solving - and meaning seeking as = part of=20 social interaction played a role in child-centered, progressive = education, as=20 well.

Project-based learning also reflects a Vygotskian perspective. = Vygotsky, a=20 Russian cognitive psychologist, theorizes that learning occurs through = social=20 interaction that encourages individuals to deal with the kind cognitive=20 challenges that are just slightly above their current levels of ability=20 (Wertsch, 1985). He posits that concepts develop and understanding = happens when=20 individuals enter into discussion and meaningful interaction with more = capable=20 peers or teachers. These individuals can model problem solving, assist = in=20 finding solutions, monitor progress, and evaluate success (Tharpe and = Gallimore,=20 1988). Although Vygotsky himself did not discuss in detail how his = theories on=20 language and thought should translate into teaching, others have = suggested that=20 joint problem solving, with opportunities to shape and reshape knowledge = through=20 talk, promotes the cognitive development that Vygotsky saw as crucial = (Driscoll,=20 1994).

Project-based learning has a great deal in common with participatory=20 education and a Freirean philosophy of teaching adults. The key tenets = of this=20 approach hold that learning occurs when the content of the curriculum is = drawn=20 from the social context of the learners, and literacy (the word) is used = to make=20 sense of the circumstances of one's life (the world). Freirean educators = stress=20 the need to empower disenfranchised learners to fight the status quo and = help=20 create a more fair and equitable society through a process of critical=20 reflection and collective action. Freirean-inspired projects differ from = other=20 learner-centered approaches inasmuch as they stress the socio-political = aspects=20 of the issues being addressed rather than focusing on the personal or = cultural=20 dimensions of literacy without reference to the broader social contexts = in which=20 literacy occurs (Auerbach, 1993; Wrigley, 1993).

As implemented in adult education, project-based learning also owes a = debt to=20 community action research, conducted by adults in literacy programs in = the=20 United States and in developing countries. While project-based learning = is=20 sometimes called "knowledge in action" (Barnes, 1988), action research = has been=20 defined as "ideas in action". It constitutes a process through which = adult=20 learners develop their language, literacy, and problem solving skills = while=20 researching a problem and then moving to effect change in a community = (Curtis,=20 1990). Throughout the world, many examples exist of neighborhood = residents=20 working as a group to discuss and examine the conditions of their lives = and then=20 speaking up to document neglect and demand changes. In some communities, = adult=20 learners have investigated toxic dumping at a land ll (Merrifield, = 1997), or=20 explored what it takes to set up a local day care center or food co-op = and have=20 taken steps to establish such programs.

Varieties

Although most project-based learning in adult basic education is = smaller in=20 scope and narrower in focus than community action research, the two = models share=20 the conviction that, if given a chance, adults without much formal = education=20 will create responses to community issues that are creative, feasible, = and=20 worthwhile. At El Barrio Popular Education Program, in East Harlem, New = York,=20 for example, the women in the program started cooking and sharing their = own food=20 for lunch in response to the high prices being charged by local = restaurants.=20 After some discussion and research, this project grew into a catering = business=20 for the wider community as the women ended up providing Cuban and = Dominican food=20 at social events. The project achieved such success that it was = highlighted=20 in The New York Timesnewspaper.

While a community orientation to literacy education meshes nicely = with=20 project-based learning, not all project-based learning has a political = focus.=20 For example, teachers working in the humanistic tradition, which = emphasizes=20 individual growth and self-actualization rather than collective action, = often=20 encourage projects that involve personal or cultural expressions of self = and=20 community, such as oral histories. Others integrate projects into a = theme-based=20 curriculum, encouraging projects that draw on learners' creative = impulses:=20 learners may develop memory books, design original books for their = children,=20 write short plays and skits, produce poetry and songs, or put together a = collection of sayings, rituals, and events from their childhood that = they want=20 to preserve for their children. Projects that stress expression of the = human=20 spirit through language and literature reflect a personal relevance = orientation=20 to learning, popularized by humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham=20 Maslow.

Projects do not have to be designed for an audience beyond one's = fellow=20 students. Quite often learners develop questions as a group, divide the = work=20 among individuals or pairs who seek answers to selected questions using = a=20 variety of sources, such as the Internet or guest speakers (Rosen, = 1998).=20 Although the final product may be not much more than a series of = questions and=20 answers compiled in a document to be shared with the group, such = projects=20 nevertheless meet some of the criteria for project work: learners work = in a=20 group to select topics of interest and decide the direction of their = learning;=20 they rely on insights from their peers while providing feedback to = others; they=20 may use the teacher as a resource, but by and large, they create their = own=20 knowledge.

Functional Context; Workplace Preparation

Teachers and students concerned about life skills and the more = functional=20 components of literacy may choose projects that help learners meet = critical=20 economic needs by assisting them in adapting to new environments or = function=20 more effectively in familiar ones. These projects often result in guides = and=20 strategies meant to make it easier to navigate systems. Examples include = a=20 handbook written by students for new students, a list of tips and hints = on how=20 to deal with the admission requirements of a college or training = institute, or a=20 description of different ways to fight a an eviction notice or challenge = a=20 traffic ticket. As learners conduct research into what it takes to = negotiate=20 bureaucracies, they acquire the knowledge and skills associated with = functional=20 competence in literacy, while developing strategies for decision = making.

As the new federal requirements for TANF (temporary assistance to = needy=20 families) take effect, replacing the JOBS program, teachers who need to = include=20 a workforce development component in their curriculum see project-based = work as=20 a creative way to link learner-centered education with investigations = into the=20 world of work. Project work allows learners to work in groups to examine = local=20 job opportunities, document the history of work in their communities, or = to=20 research the training and education needed for different jobs. As they = conduct=20 this research and present it to others, they develop the confidence and=20 knowledge necessary in the job search process. In fact, in a society = where=20 companies are looking for employees who have people skills, are able to = work in=20 teams, and have the competence to make decisions and solve problems as = they=20 arise, project-based learning can serve as a powerful tool to prepare = students=20 for the world of work.

Teacher's Role

Although the teacher's role is less that of an instructor who = transmits=20 information and organizes activities for practice and more that of a = guide and a=20 facilitator, it is a critical role, nevertheless. Projects require that = teachers=20 get to know their learners' interests. Teachers must listen for what has = been=20 called the teachable moment, that point in a discussion when learners = become=20 excited about a topic, and start asking questions such as "why is x = happening=20 and what can we do about it?"

Facilitating project-based learning requires the kind of leadership = skills=20 that allow teachers to help a group of learners to move in the direction = that=20 they want to go, pointing out potential pitfalls or making suggestions = without=20 getting defensive when students decide they like their own ideas better. = It=20 makes a difference if teachers possess a tolerance for ambiguity, some = skill in=20 helping learners negotiate conflicts, and enough self-confidence to not = give up=20 when a project peters out or refuses to come together.

Not all projects are successful. Some teachers are too inexperienced = to guide=20 the process well. They may expect too much ability on the part of the = learners=20 to take control of the project without having laid the necessary = groundwork or=20 they may fail to let students take the lead when they can. Learners do = not=20 necessarily take to project work wholeheartedly, either. Some may feel = teachers=20 are abdicating their roles if they do not provide answers, or they may = not want=20 to learn with and from their classmates.

Several strategies can facilitate the process. If some learners are=20 resistant, it helps if project participation is voluntary: after a topic = has=20 been identified and possibilities discussed, learners should be able to = elect to=20 either join the project team or work on their own during the time = periods set=20 aside for group work. One or two hours per week seems optimal for = project-based=20 learning in non-intensive classes. In cases where both learners and = teachers are=20 new to project-based learning, infusing the curriculum with multiple=20 opportunities for group discussion and decision-making can ease the = transition.=20 If adult learners decide to take on a project, they need sufficient time = to=20 plan, revise, implement and reflect on the project before it is = presented to=20 others. Anson Green (personal communication) has suggested that the = tasks, time=20 lines, and responsibilities that the group has mapped out be posted = prominently=20 on the walls as reminders of the status of a project. Frequent drafts of = products help to keep the group focused on the work to be done, while=20 encouraging individuals to shape or edit pieces that need improvement. = It helps=20 if funds are allocated so learners can budget for supplies, = photocopying,=20 invitations or yers, and presentation materials. Even if materials are = offered=20 in-kind by the program, estimating costs and staying within a budget = provides=20 important experience for learners that translates to other contexts.

Benefits and Skill Gains

In interviews I have done with teachers involved in successful = project-based=20 learning, some themes surface: at the beginning of and the end of = projects,=20 learner enthusiasm seems to be increased, revitalizing classes and = teachers.=20 Since students have signed on to an issue that interests them, = motivation tends=20 to be high. As learners get involved in the inquiry process, they become = curious=20 about answers, often digging deeper into a topic and spending more time = on task=20 than they do when a teacher assigns group work. A shared work ethic is = created.=20 Teachers report that learners frequently encourage each other and lend = moral=20 support as they face the frightening prospect of a public presentation. = In the=20 end, they come through when a presentation is scheduled, appearing well = prepared=20 and on time and communicating their ideas confidently and effectively, = despite=20 any nervousness they may feel (Mary Helen Martinez, personal = communication).=20

Others who have also talked with learners report outcomes in various = domains,=20 including attitudes, self-ef cacy, and "can do"skills (Curtis, 1990; = Schwarz,=20 1997). When asked what project work has meant to them, learners mention = a=20 greater awareness of their own abilities to research and report ndings; = the con=20 dence that comes from being able to map out a project and see it come to = fruition; the joy and frustration of working with others; the pride in = gaining=20 important knowledge and insights; the enthusiasm generated by mastering = new=20 technologies; and, in the case of presentations of a personal nature, = the=20 excitement of sharing a story worth telling.

Limited Research

While numerous research studies have demonstrated the positive = effects of=20 similar forms of group learning on academic skills of school-age = children and=20 youth (Johnson and Johnson, 1989; Slavin, 1990), no large scale studies = have=20 been conducted with learners engaged in project-based learning in adult = literacy=20 programs. However, sufficient anecdotal evidence supports the contention = that=20 project-based learning fosters the skills named by the Secretary of = Labor's=20 Commission on Necessary Skills (SCANS) as those deemed necessary to = succeed in=20 high performing workplaces. To fully assess what learners take away from = project=20 work, in terms of both group and individual learning, we would need to = develop=20 performance-based assessments that capture the knowledge, skills, and = strategies=20 that learners attain against some level of standard, developed jointly = by=20 teachers, learners, and members of the community. No studies have been = done=20 comparing project-based learning in adult education with more = conventional=20 models of teaching and learning, so to what extent basic skills as = measured by=20 standardized tests or GED completion rates are affected by project-based = learning remains an open question.

When the discussion moves to literacy gains, teachers and learners = are often=20 concerned that limited time that could be spent on the practice of basic = skills=20 is instead taken up with discussions and explorations of issues. = Evidence=20 suggests, however, that learners involved in project-based learning = often spend=20 significant amounts of time writing down ideas, reading and commenting = on what=20 others have written, and shaping the work the group is producing. = Teachers=20 report that motivation to edit is significantly higher when learners = face a=20 "real audience" made up of folks outside of the adult ed community whose = standards are often more rigorous than those of adult literacy teachers. = It=20 seems clear, however, that learners who participate in project work do = not=20 obtain lower scores on tests than do their classmates who are part of a = more=20 conventional approach.

As for math, when learners are engaged in projects that require = budgets, they=20 frequently end up spending a great deal of time on calculations and time = lines,=20 gaining experience in the kind of practical math used in business and = household=20 management. If time-on-task counts, and many basic skills proponents = believe it=20 does (Croll and Moses, 1988), we can expect project work to lead to a = deeper=20 understanding of what it takes to apply math to real life problems.

Skill gains in second language acquisition, particularly on the = intermediate=20 and advance levels, are perhaps the easiest to see (see ESOL box on page = ).=20 Every aspect of project-based learning feeds into what Krashen (1985) = has called=20 the language acquisition device, the ability of the brain to acquire a = second=20 language through meaningful input and expression. We can expect = proficiency to=20 increase as the target language is used to investigate and discuss, to = gain=20 content knowledge by reading and talking with others, and to share ideas = through=20 writing. Engagement and involvement of this sort with another language = is likely=20 to result in greater "pragmatic competence," (Krashen) the ability to = understand=20 that language varies across contexts and to use language and literacy in = socially appropriate ways.

Despite its many bene ts, project-based learning in adult literacy = should not=20 be an end in itself, given the multiple goals and multiple learning = needs of=20 adults. It is perhaps best integrated into a comprehensive curriculum = that=20 allows for individual skill development as part of these group = initiatives.

Conclusion

In the end, those of us who subscribe to a constructivist perspective = and=20 believe that we create our own knowledge through interaction with others = and=20 with texts may see the immediate bene ts of project-based learning, = while those=20 of us who believe in more structured and direct models of teaching will = remain=20 skeptical. We all await research that can capture the many dimensions of = learning that project-based learning addresses: gaining meaning from = reading=20 authentic materials; writing for an audience; communicating with others = outside=20 of the classroom; working as part of a team, and giving voice to one's = opinions=20 and ideas, using literacy to affect change. In the meantime, we may have = to take=20 the project-based learning on faith and see it as a promising approach = that re=20 ects much of what we know about the way adults learn.

Endnotes

1. For an example of what worked and what did not during different = phases of=20 a project, read the evaluation component of the 1997-98 Learning Project = Summary=20 by Anson Green. It can be found at http://members.aol.c= om/CuleraMom/mujer.html

2. For a discussion of the relationship between educational = philosophies and=20 instructional practice in adult
literacy programs, see Wrigley, H.S. = &=20 Guth, G. (1992). One Size Does Not Fit All. San Diego: Dominie=20 Press.

3. For an example of such a project, see Shor, I. (1987b). Monday = Morning=20 Fever: Critical Literacy and the Generative Theme of "Work" in Freire = for the=20 Classroom. 104-121. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books, = Inc.

References

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About the Author

Heide Spruck Wrigley is a senior researcher with Aguirre = International,=20 specializing in language, literacy, and learning. She has worked with a = number=20 of programs involved with a project-based learning, including project = IDEA, a=20 Texas state-wide professional development initiative. She is the author = of=20 Bringing Literacy to Life, a handbook on ESOL literacy.